Archaeologists have uncovered a unique burial in Egypt dating back approximately 2,000 years, where a papyrus fragment of Homer’s “Iliad” was found sealed in a clay packet and placed outside the wrappings of a mummified nonroyal male. This discovery, made at the Oxyrhynchus necropolis about 120 miles south of Cairo, marks the first known instance of a literary text playing a functional and spiritual role in the mummification process.

The excavation, conducted by the Mission of the University of Barcelona under the direction of Ignasi-Xavier Adiego from the Institute of Ancient Near East, revealed that the papyrus contained lines from Book 2 of the “Iliad,” specifically the “Catalogue of Ships,” which lists the commanders and regional contributions to the Greek forces in the Trojan War. This finding suggests that, during the Roman period in Egypt, classical Greek literature was repurposed beyond mere reading, potentially serving as a protective amulet or magical aid in navigating the afterlife.

Leah Mascia, a specialist in the written culture of Greco-Roman Egypt at the Free University of Berlin, led the detailed analysis and conservation of the fragile papyrus alongside conservator Margalida Munar and linguist Dr. Adiego. Their combined expertise allowed for the reconstruction and interpretation of the damaged text, revealing a blending of Egyptian and Hellenic funerary customs. Embalmer seals and the folding patterns of the packet support the idea that such papyrus scrolls were intentionally integrated into burial rituals rather than being incidental inclusions.

This practice stands in contrast to traditional Egyptian sepulchral texts such as the “Book of the Dead” or the “Book of Breathing,” which were designed to guide the deceased through the underworld. In the early Roman era, however, sealed papyrus packets containing diverse materials—including Greco-Egyptian magical texts, official documents, and noted literary works like the “Iliad”—appear to point toward a highly personalized spiritual practice adapting to the multicultural environment of Roman Egypt.

Oxyrhynchus, situated on the banks of the Bahr Yussef canal, has long been an archaeological hotspot known for its extraordinarily well-preserved papyri, including classical literary fragments, legal records, and religious manuscripts. The site, initially recorded during Napoleon’s 1798 campaign and extensively excavated since the late 19th century, continues to offer significant insights into the social and religious life of ancient populations.

Additional finds in the necropolis include mummies decorated with golden and copper tongues, likely symbolizing the deceased’s ability to speak before the god Osiris, as well as cremated remains of humans and animals that reflect complex burial customs and social status.

Scholars note that the presence of the “Iliad” within a funerary context may have served both symbolic and practical purposes. Egyptologist Foy Scalf of the University of Chicago highlighted that Greek literary texts, including Homeric passages, were often cited in magical amulets, and in some ancient remedies, lines from the “Iliad” were believed to have healing properties. Historian Anna Dolganov of the Austrian Archaeological Institute posits that such Greek literary inclusions reflected an elite Hellenic identity that conferred social status in life and, possibly, a smoother passage in death.

The discovery underscores the rich cultural interplay in Roman Egypt, where Greek and Egyptian traditions merged to create new religious expressions. Further research is ongoing to fully understand how these literary artifacts functioned within funerary practices and what they reveal about identity, belief, and afterlife expectations during this period.