On February 4, 1794, amid the turbulence of the French Revolution’s Reign of Terror, the National Convention formally abolished slavery in all French colonies, declaring that all residents of these territories, regardless of race, were French citizens entitled to constitutional rights. This landmark decision marked one of the earliest legal abolitions of slavery globally, preceding similar actions in countries such as the United States and European colonial empires.

Historian Jeremy D. Popkin, professor emeritus at the University of Kentucky, delves into this overlooked chapter of history in his book “The First Emancipation: The Forgotten History of Abolition in Revolutionary France.” His research traces the abolitionist movement’s evolution from the reign of Louis XIV through the revolutionary upheavals of 1789 and the chaotic period of the First Republic. Popkin highlights how abolition was shaped not only by the dramatic slave revolts in French colonies, particularly Saint-Domingue (modern-day Haiti), but also by intense political and ideological debates within metropolitan France.

The slave uprisings led by figures such as Vincent Ogé, Boukman Dutty, Toussaint L’Ouverture, and Jean-Jacques Dessalines exerted vital pressure on French lawmakers to reconcile the revolution’s ideals of liberty and equality with the reality of colonial slavery and entrenched racial discrimination. However, Popkin emphasizes that the abolition decree was not solely a result of these revolts; he identifies key French revolutionaries who vigorously advocated for abolition amid fluctuating political fortunes and power struggles.

Among these were members of the Girondin faction, including the Marquis de Condorcet and Jacques Pierre Brissot, who championed emancipation but were executed during the Terror before the decree’s passage. While Condorcet has since been honored, Brissot’s contributions remain less recognized, partly due to his unassuming personal style. Conversely, Maximilien Robespierre, often portrayed as an ardent abolitionist, shifted his stance later in the Revolution, opposing the Girondins and distancing himself from abolition efforts to consolidate power.

Despite this complex political landscape, the 1794 abolition represented a precarious triumph within revolutionary France’s broader struggles. Yet, the gains were reversed under Napoleon Bonaparte, who assumed power in 1799 and reinstated slavery in Guadeloupe by 1802, while attempting similarly in Saint-Domingue. Historians debate whether Napoleon’s actions stemmed primarily from racial prejudice or strategic military and economic considerations. Popkin notes that the new constitution under Napoleon excluded colonial subjects from equal rights, signaling a retreat from the earlier revolutionary principles.

Napoleon later admitted in exile that the military campaign to regain control of Saint-Domingue was a mistake, though he deflected responsibility onto his advisors and pro-slavery interests in Paris. The reimposition of slavery marked a repudiation of France’s earlier claims as a champion of human rights and liberty, reinforcing the nation’s role in sustaining colonial slavery and racial hierarchies for years to come.

While the counterfactual outcomes of a sustained abolitionist policy by France remain speculative, Popkin’s work illustrates how deeply abolitionist ideas permeated revolutionary discourse. The debates and advocacy by Condorcet, Brissot, and others framed the end of slavery as a testament to the Revolution’s fundamental principles, even as the subsequent political realities undercut those ideals. This history underscores the complexities and contradictions of the French Revolution and its legacy in the struggle for human rights.