New research into England’s maritime economy between the late 16th and mid-18th centuries reveals that despite the expansion of British colonial trade, European markets remained central to the country’s commerce during this period. Historians at the University of Southampton have drawn on approximately 100,000 pages of customs records, employing artificial intelligence to decode handwritten documents, thereby creating a searchable database chronicling hundreds of thousands of voyages. This initiative marks the first systematic attempt to map the development of England’s seaborne trade routes and establish a pre-modern register of British ships.

While colonial goods such as sugar and tobacco flowed into England from the Americas and trading connections with Asia expanded, analysis of customs records from 1696-97 indicates that nearly three-quarters of English imports by value originated from Europe, rather than from Asia or the Americas. This finding underscores the continuing importance of European trade even as England pursued imperial ambitions overseas.

European imports included timber from the Baltic region, iron from Sweden, flax, wine from France, and textiles, while English woollen cloth was a significant export to the continent. Key English ports such as Hull and Whitby maintained robust trade links with Scandinavia and the Baltic, while Newcastle and Sunderland were major exporters of coal domestically. Coastal shipping, carrying essential goods such as coal, grain, malt, wheat, iron, wool, and wine, was a critical component of England’s maritime activity and surpassed overseas voyages in the number of vessels involved.

The customs records also document a variety of less common cargoes. For example, shipments of animal skins—including those of bears, wolves, panthers, and otters—were recorded in significant quantities. Other exotic imports included children’s toys from China, sheep guts, bowstrings, and a medicinal concoction known as “Venice treacle,” which contained ingredients such as viper flesh, opium, and spices and was mistakenly believed to prevent serious illness.

Researchers accessed port books held at the National Archives in Kew, southwest London, with records dating back to 1565. Artificial intelligence greatly accelerated the extraction and organization of the data, although manual verification was still necessary.

The geographic spread of Britain’s overseas trading connections is notable, with ten of the top fifteen countries by maritime locations linked to British trade situated in Europe. France led with 157 identified maritime sites, followed by the Netherlands with 68, and India with 59. Project historian John McAleer emphasized that these findings illustrate Europe’s role as Britain’s principal trading partner centuries ago, even amid the rise of Atlantic commerce.

Professor Craig Lambert, who led the study, stressed that the growth of England’s Atlantic trade did not diminish the significance of established European commercial relationships. Instead, coastal shipping and European trade outlets remained integral to the burgeoning British maritime economy.