Authorities across the United Kingdom have intensified scrutiny of “ghost kitchens” amid concerns over illegal workers and unsanitary food preparation conditions. These kitchens, which primarily operate out of non-retail premises such as warehouses or office buildings, prepare meals exclusively for delivery platforms like Deliveroo, often without public awareness of their operations or hygiene standards.

In a recent enforcement action in Greater Manchester, police raided Fooduo Ltd, a ghost kitchen located in the Higher Ardwick area, following allegations that it employed staff without valid immigration documentation. Officers observed a man working without the necessary UK visa, who was subsequently referred to Immigration Enforcement. Police also documented unsafe food handling practices, including bags of raw meat left in hallways instead of being properly stored under hygienic conditions. Fooduo had received a hygiene rating of “1” — indicating major improvements were needed — during a prior inspection last year, despite boasting a high customer rating on Deliveroo’s platform.

Experts warn that such discrepancies between hygiene ratings and online reviews are common within the ghost kitchen sector. Dr. Babis Giousmpasoglou, a Hospitality Management specialist at Bournemouth University, highlighted the challenges consumers face, noting that meals ordered from well-reviewed restaurants may actually be prepared in uninspected or poorly regulated ghost kitchen facilities. This complicates accountability, particularly when kitchens change names or locations to evade enforcement.

The Fooduo operation is one of at least 33 ghost kitchens sharing a single building in Greater Manchester, where a variety of virtual restaurant concepts are run simultaneously, offering diverse cuisines including Chinese, sushi, burgers, and Cajun meals. Some kitchens have hygiene ratings as low as one or two, while others have never undergone formal inspection, even as they accumulate strong online customer reviews. This phenomenon is not isolated to Greater Manchester but is seen in other major UK cities such as London, Leeds, Bradford, and Bristol.

A recent University of Sheffield study sought to define ghost kitchens—also called “dark,” “cloud,” or “virtual” kitchens—which first emerged widely in 2019. Market data from 2020 identified about 750 such kitchens in the UK, but experts believe the true number is substantially higher due to the covert nature of many operations.

Public health concerns extend beyond hygiene. Dr. Jordan Beaumont, a registered nutritionist at Sheffield Hallam University, warned that the coexistence of multiple virtual brands within a single kitchen increases risks for cross-contamination and allergen exposure. While many operators adhere to regulations, he acknowledged that some exploit the lack of oversight.

Further complicating matters, human rights advocates have raised alarms about the potential for modern slavery within ghost kitchens. Hilary Agg, head of policy and research at the charity Unseen, stated that the isolated locations and hidden nature of many ghost kitchens make them attractive environments for worker exploitation, including physical and mental abuse. She emphasized that these conditions could allow exploitation to go unnoticed, with workers subjected to excessive hours and poor treatment in workplaces disconnected from public scrutiny.

Deliveroo, the delivery platform most commonly associated with ghost kitchens, asserts that all providers on its platform must comply with Food Standards Agency guidelines. The company said any businesses found in violation of modern slavery laws are removed from its service.

As the sector grows and evolves, regulators and consumer advocates continue to call for greater transparency and stricter enforcement to ensure food safety and labor rights are upheld in this expanding segment of the food delivery industry.