On a narrow stretch of Willapa Bay in Washington, members of the Chinook Indian nation gathered recently to perform a traditional salmon ceremony, honoring the first catches of the season with prayers, song, and ritual offerings. The event, held in a location used by their ancestors centuries ago, underscores a long-standing connection to the land and waters of the lower Columbia region. Yet despite this enduring presence, the Chinook and numerous other small tribes across the United States remain outside the federal recognition system, a status that significantly limits their access to resources and legal rights.

Tony Johnson, chair of the Chinook tribe, explained that his ancestors declined to relocate to reservations during federal negotiations in 1851, choosing to remain “with the bones of our ancestors.” This decision, he said, set in motion a legal and political struggle his family continues today. Without federal recognition, the tribe lacks formal acknowledgment and the advantages it confers—including access to federal funding for healthcare, education, housing, and in some cases, gambling rights.

Earlier this year, the Supreme Court declined to hear the Chinook’s petition for recognition, signaling the challenges tribes face in securing formal status. Over the last two decades, nearly all tribes granted federal recognition have done so through congressional legislation rather than the slower administrative review process. The Lumbee tribe of North Carolina notably received recognition last year via an amendment included in a federal defense bill.

Smaller tribes often contend with a complex and politically charged process compounded by opposition from neighboring tribes. Those with recognized status may resist new acknowledgments because of concerns over resource competition. Josh Reid, a historian and member of the Snohomish tribe, described the struggle as “a zero-sum game” driven by ongoing effects of settler colonialism.

The difficulty of gaining recognition is especially acute in the Pacific Northwest. A 1974 court ruling confirmed tribal fishing rights and shared management of salmon fisheries in Washington, elevating the stakes. But the Bureau of Indian Affairs’ 1978 formal acknowledgment process requires tribes to demonstrate continuous political and social existence since the early 20th century—an arduous task for tribes like the Chinook, whose history involves disrupted treaty negotiations and scattered settlement patterns.

The Chinook briefly received federal recognition in 2001 during the Clinton administration, only to have it revoked months later under President George W. Bush’s administration after objections by other tribes. The Duwamish tribe in nearby Puget Sound experienced a similar reversal of recognition status during the same period. Opposition to recognition claims can be vocal and divisive; the Muckleshoot tribe, for example, has publicly contested the Duwamish’s legitimacy.

Internal divisions and external pressures complicate recognition efforts. In 2023, the Chinook worked with Representative Marie Gluesenkamp Perez of Washington on legislative recognition. However, negotiations faltered when the representative requested the Chinook relinquish treaty rights related to hunting and fishing and urged reconciliation with other tribes, a challenging proposition given historical grievances.

As generations pass, the burden of proof becomes more difficult as elders pass away and documentation lapses. Many individuals with Chinook heritage also descend from federally recognized tribes, leading some to enroll elsewhere to access benefits, sometimes at the cost of their Chinook identity.

At the recent ceremony, Tony Johnson’s son, Tahoma, who learned traditional fishing and cooking skills from his grandmother, reflected on his role in carrying forward the tribe’s cultural practices and the ongoing fight for recognition. “It’s basically the government saying we’re not here, we don’t exist, when we clearly do,” he said, underscoring the persistent challenges faced by the Chinook and other unrecognized tribes striving for federal acknowledgment.