A conflict between the United States, Israel, and Iran that escalated into open hostilities on February 28 traces its origins to the U.S. withdrawal from the 2015 Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action (JCPOA), the international nuclear agreement with Iran. The deal, negotiated under the Obama administration and endorsed unanimously by the UN Security Council through Resolution 2231, was designed to limit Iran's nuclear capabilities in exchange for lifting sanctions imposed by the U.S., European Union, and the United Nations.

In May 2018, then-President Donald Trump unilaterally withdrew the U.S. from the JCPOA, citing concerns over Iran's nuclear ambitions. This move allowed Iran to cease compliance with the deal's restrictions and led to the reinstatement of sweeping American sanctions. These sanctions targeted not only Iran but also nations and entities that continued nuclear cooperation with Tehran, putting significant pressure on European signatories Britain, France, and Germany—collectively referred to as the E3.

By January 2020, the E3 had re-imposed their own sanctions after Iran warned of disengagement from the JCPOA if commitments were not upheld. Iran subsequently increased uranium enrichment levels far above the 3.67 percent cap set by the agreement. According to U.S. intelligence, Iran now holds approximately 2,000 kilograms of enriched uranium at varying concentrations, including 440 kilograms enriched to 60 percent, approaching weapons-grade levels. If further enriched to 90 percent, this stockpile could theoretically be used to produce up to 100 nuclear weapons.

The Biden administration sought to revive the nuclear deal during its 2021-2025 term through a "compliance for compliance" approach—lifting sanctions in exchange for Iran’s renewed adherence to nuclear restrictions. Parallel talks with Iran and the E3, however, faltered amid deep mutual distrust, compounded by geopolitical distractions such as the war in Ukraine and the October 2023 attacks originating from Gaza.

Complicating negotiations has been the role of Israel. Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu has long opposed the JCPOA. His influential 2015 address to the U.S. Congress sought to derail the deal before it was finalized, and he was instrumental in persuading Trump to exit the agreement in 2018. Netanyahu subsequently initiated a 12-day military campaign against Iran in June 2025 and has lobbied for expanded military action aimed at dismantling Iran’s nuclear, missile, and military infrastructure. He has also argued that such measures could lead to the collapse of the Iranian regime, enabling the rise of a pro-Western government in Tehran.

Recent efforts at negotiation between U.S. and Iranian officials, reportedly involving Pakistani mediation, aim to halt ongoing military engagements. However, the parties remain at odds over terms. Iran demands a cessation of hostilities alongside guarantees against future U.S. attacks, proposing to delay nuclear discussions by two months—a condition unacceptable to the Trump administration. The U.S. insists on reopening the Strait of Hormuz to international navigation, while Iran seeks the lifting of naval blockades on its ports.

With these differences unresolved, the risk of renewed military conflict persists, potentially punctuated by intermittent ceasefires. The situation remains fluid as diplomatic attempts continue to find a viable interim accord.