In October 2024, Sue Black, president of St John’s College, Oxford and a forensic anthropologist, was alerted to an auction featuring human heads for sale near Oxford. The auction, hosted by the Swan gallery in Tetsworth, offered human skulls decorated with feathers by the Naga people of India, as well as a tsantsa, or shrunken head, traditionally made by the Shuar people of the Ecuadorian Amazon. Both the Naga and Shuar ceased the practice of headhunting more than 50 years ago and have since requested museums to remove these items from display.
Despite these appeals, the heads were openly listed for sale online, raising ethical and legal questions. Black noted that the sale was likely legal under current UK laws. The Human Tissue Act 2004 regulates the sale of human organs for transplant and the exhibition of remains less than 100 years old, but it does not broadly prohibit the sale of older human remains. Court rulings have also contributed to ambiguities; a 1998 ruling deemed that human remains altered by scientists or artists can be considered property, enabling their trade.
Following contact from museum officials and Naga elders, the Swan gallery withdrew the sale, though such auctions are not isolated incidents. The British Association for Biological Anthropology and Osteoarchaeology (Babao), a volunteer expert network, has tracked at least 211 online sales of human remains in the UK since 2020, with items ranging from rare tribal skulls valued between £15,000 and £50,000 to bone-made curiosities priced under £100. Babao warns social media platforms, despite official rules against selling human remains, are often used for such transactions, sometimes employing coded language to evade detection.
Viktor Wynd, a known collector and dealer based in Suffolk, openly acknowledged selling human remains, including shrunken heads and tribal skulls. Wynd’s collection, which includes items ranging from animal bones to human skulls, reflects a longstanding fascination with macabre objects, paralleling the Victorian-era collecting impulse linked to colonialism. He identifies as an animist, attributing spiritual significance to the items he owns, though critics note he, like many dealers, often neglects the origins and ethical considerations surrounding the remains.
Another prominent dealer, Henry Scragg, operates Curiosities from the 5th Corner near Chelmsford and openly sells human skulls and other bodily relics. Scragg has spoken publicly about the market, explaining that many of these remains likely come from teaching skeletons or other long-buried sources and suggesting that trading them provides "respect" and care for the items.
Many studied skeletons in the market trace back to a colonial-era trade centered in Kolkata, India. Between 1947 and 1985, an estimated 2.4 million skeletons were exported globally, often derived from impoverished families who sold bodies for income. Researchers highlight the dehumanizing bleaching process these remains underwent, erasing ethnic identity and underscoring a legacy of colonial violence.
The fate of such remains remains uncertain. Indian authorities have banned exports of human remains since 1985, and there is little appetite in India for repatriation due to the scale involved. Similarly, the shrunken heads themselves are complicated artifacts; although associated with the Shuar people, many belong to the Achuar, their historic rivals, who have not demanded their return.
In late 2023, six Shuar leaders visited the UK to view a collection of tsantsa stored in a Swindon warehouse. While opinions varied among the group on whether the heads should be repatriated, there was consensus that they should not be sold. Jefferson Pullaguari Acacho, president of the Shuar federation of Zamora Chinchipe province, advocated for respectful museum display that acknowledges their spiritual significance.
The legal framework regulating human remains in the UK has faced increased scrutiny. Minister for Arts and Museums Ruth Mackenzie announced an upcoming government review of guidelines on the management of human remains in museums, with Baroness Black appointed to lead the advisory board. Meanwhile, a bill proposed by Labour MP Bell Ribeiro-Addy, aiming to ban the sale, exhibition, and advertisement of human remains, recently failed to pass its second reading in the House of Commons. Ribeiro-Addy described the commercial trade in human remains as "disgusting," emphasizing the need for stronger protections.
Experts emphasize that treating human remains with respect is not only a matter of ethics but also reflects a shared humanity. Black remarked on the universal equality revealed through mortality, underscoring the importance of consistent respect for the dead regardless of their origins.